STARTING EVENTS

Strategic Picture - Starting with the conflict between Serbia and Austria, the land war around the Mediterranean and in the Near East eventually develops into a total of nine major campaigns, some of which last throughout the war. With the entry of Turkey into the war later in 1914, fronts are opened up in Gallipoli in European Turkey, in Egypt and later Palestine, in Arabia with the 1916 Arab revolt, at the head of the Persian Gulf in Mesopotamia, and between the Russians and Turks in the mountains south of the Caucasus and then in Persia. From 1915, the Italians will battle the Austrians in the Alps, and the Allies will become embroiled in Salonika and Greece. To follow the various campaigns, in the months that follow, these areas are listed from west and to east, and circling south around the Ottoman Empire, thus:

1. Italy	AUSTRO-	HUNGARY				9. Caucasus
	2. Serbia	3. Salonika, Greece	4. Gallipoli, European Turkey	OTTOMAN	EMPIRE	8. Persia
				5. Egypt and Palestine		7. Mesopotamia (Iraq)
					6. Arabia

---

THE NAVIES AT WAR

FRENCH NAVY - War in the Mediterranean is expected to involve France lining up against the combined fleets of Italy and Austria-Hungary. Building on the "Entente Cordiale" with Britain, France has mostly handed over the defence of her northern waters to the Royal Navy and concentrated her forces in the Mediterranean as the "1st Armeé Navale". By August 1914, under the command of Adm de Lapeyrère, this fleet includes most of the major warships operational in the somewhat ageing French Navy -

all six old battleships,
eleven pre-dreadnoughts,
dreadnoughts "Jean Bart" and "Courbet" ( with "France" and "Paris" completing, and three more to follow),
11 out of 18 armoured cruisers,
four out of 14 protected cruisers,
half the fleet of around 86 destroyers and 34 submarines.

The first duty of the "Armeé Navale" is to escort French African troops to France and then blockade the Austrian Fleet in the Adriatic. It then goes on to participate in the Dardanelles and Suez campaigns, in operations off Palestine and Syria, the landings at Salonika and later operations against the Greek Navy, the evacuation of the Serbian Army, and anti-submarine warfare against the German U-boats.

ITALIAN NAVY - In the case of Italy, instead of siding with Austria, the country remains neutral for now. The main Italian Fleet, based at Taranto under Vice Adm HRH Luigi di Savoia, Duke of Abbruzzi, includes most of the major warships -

all three completed dreadnoughts (again with three more to follow),
eight pre-dreadnoughts,
eight out of ten armoured cruisers,
light and scout cruisers,
destroyers, torpedo boats and submarines.

Other vessels are based in Albanian, Aegean and Libyan waters. When war is declared in May 1915, the Navy's first task is to join with the French in the blockade of the Austrians. Not content with this passive role, together with defending the flat Italian Adriatic coastline and supporting the land campaign in the northern reaches of the Adriatic, the Italians come to specialise in unconventional warfare with M.A.S.-type motor torpedo boats, caterpillar-tracked climbing boats, and frogmen. In doing so, they sink two out of the four Austrian dreadnoughts and one coast defence battleship.

AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN NAVY - Across the Adriatic from Italy is the rocky, indented coastline of Austria-Hungary. The main Battle Fleet, based at Pola under Adm Anton Haus consists of

all three dreadnoughts (with a fourth completing),
nine pre-dreadnoughts,
three armoured cruisers,
three out of five light/protected cruisers,
scout cruisers,
destroyers and torpedo boats.

In addition, there are a few submarines, three coastal defence battleships and various local defence forces in the Adriatic, and one protected cruiser out in Chinese waters at Tsingtao with the Germans. Throughout the war, the Navy guards the coastline and protects supply lines to the Army in the Albanian theatre, and uses light forces, submarines and a large seaplane fleet to attack Allied bases and shipping routes. The battle fleet, outnumbered as it is by the combined French, British and later the Italian fleets, spends most of the war in harbour as a "fleet-in-being".

BRITISH ROYAL NAVY - As France has been slow to build dreadnoughts, and with both Austria-Hungary and Italy having three each in commission, the Royal Navy is forced to base at Malta

battlecruisers "Inflexible", "Indefatigable" and "Indomitable"
four armoured cruisers of the 1st Cruiser Squadron,
four "Town" class light cruisers,
flotilla of destroyers,

all under the command of Adm Sir Berkeley Milne.

GERMAN NAVY - To counter the British, the German Admiralty has sent

battlecruiser "Goeben"
light cruiser "Breslau"

into the Mediterranean under Rear-Adm Wilhelm Souchon. Late June finds the "Goeben" undergoing a refit at Pola. To avoid the possibility of being trapped in the Adriatic, Souchon sails south before war starts, and is soon the focus of Royal and French Navy activity in the Mediterranean.

MEDITERRANEAN & NEAR EAST - AUGUST 1914

Serbia - In the First Invasion of Serbia, the Austrians deploy three armies (including most of the Second) against Serbia. With an army of some 250,000 men, plus militia from Montenegro, Serbia has slight numerical superiority. Between the 12th and 24th August, the Austrians cross the Sava and Drina Rivers, are halted in the Serbian mountains, and pushed back across the frontier at a cost of 50,000 men.

Mediterranean War at Sea

It is the presence of the two German ships in the Mediterranean that even before war is declared, leads to a series of encounters and actions. Their escape from the Royal Navy is an embarrassment, but far more significant are the strategic results. Of direct consequence, Turkey is brought into the war on the side of the Central Powers, which in turn leads to the Allied Dardanelles and Gallipoli campaigns with their aim of capturing Constantinople and knocking Turkey out of the war in one fell swoop. Some historians suggest that the failure to do so and thus supply Russia through the Black Sea, was a contributory cause of the Russian Revolution and the following 70 years of Communist domination of Russia and then Eastern Europe. On these terms, Gallipoli can not be considered an irresponsible sideshow! Rather a brilliant concept which failed

4th-10th August 1914 - Escape of the German "Goeben" and "Breslau"

Forces	British	German
Commanders	Adm Sir Berkeley Milne	Rear-Adm Wilhelm Souchon
Battlecruisers	"Inflexible" (flag), "Indomitable", "Indefatigable" (1908-11, c18,000t, 8-12in, 25k)	"Goeben" (flag) (1912, 23,000t, 10-28cm, 25k)
Armoured cruisers	1st CS - "Defence" (flag Rear-Adm E Troubridge ) "Black Prince" "Duke of Edinburgh" "Warrior" (1906-08, c14,000t, 4 or 6-9.2in)	-
Light cruisers	"Chatham", "Dublin", "Gloucester", "Weymouth" (1910-12, c5,000t, mainly 8-6in, 25k)	"Breslau" (1912, 4,500t, 12-10.5cm, 27k )

On the 3rd, and with Germany now at war with France, the German ships are reported coaling at Messina on the northeast coast of Sicily. British Adm Milne sends light cruiser "Chatham" to watch the Straits of Messina, but too late to sight them, while "Indomitable" and "Indefatigable", the 1st CS, light cruiser "Gloucester" and destroyers patrol off the Strait of Otranto in case they return north into the Adriatic. Instead "Goeben" and "Breslau" head west to disrupt the transport of French African troops to France. The Admiralty decides they are making for the Atlantic and orders Milne to send two of his battlecruisers to Gibraltar.

At dawn on the 4th, off the Algerian coast, "Goeben" carries out a short, ineffective bombardment of Philippeville while "Breslau" fires on Bône. Rejoining, they head back towards the north coast of Sicily and Messina. From there, Adm Souchon plans to head for Constantinople in the belief that Germany and Turkey are in alliance. Shortly after retiring, they encounter "Indomitable" and "Indefatigable" sailing for Gibraltar. After passing close alongside, the British ships reverse course to the east. Unable to open fire as Britain's ultimatum to Germany does not expire until midnight, they content themselves with shadowing at high speed, but by late afternoon the two battlecruisers have lost contact. Even the faster light cruiser "Dublin", after joining from Bizerta, loses the Germans by 21.00.

Adm Souchon enters Messina again early on the 5th to replenish from a German collier, and the Royal Navy makes one of the first uses of ESM when "Gloucester" detects "Goeben" by wireless interception. At this time, the two battlecruisers join "Inflexible", "Chatham" and "Weymouth" to the west of Sicily to prevent any further attacks on French transports or a possible break-out into the Atlantic. Light cruiser "Gloucester" watches the southern approaches to Messina, and Troubridge's 1st CS remains in the Ionian Sea, near Corfu, to watch the Adriatic. "Dublin" sails to join him.

Managing to remain in Messina for 36 hours, "Goeben" and "Breslau" do not sail until late on the 6th, and Souchon heads for the Eastern Mediterranean, shadowed by "Gloucester". By now, two of Milne's battlecruisers are 100 miles to the west, north of Sicily, and "Indomitable" is even further away, coaling at Bizerta. Only the 1st Cruiser Squadron is in a position to intercept. The Germans feint northeast towards the Adriatic, drawing Troubridge north from his Corfu station, before heading southeast across the Ionian Sea.

Not until the early hours of the 7th does Troubridge realise his mistake and reverse course to the south. Three hours later off Zante, and after weighing up the chances of successfully fighting "Goeben", he abandons the chase. Souchon is almost free to head on for Cape Matapan, and only the shadowing light cruiser "Gloucester" remains. Her CO, Capt Howard Kelly, decides to engage "Breslau" in an attempt to delay "Goeben", and opens fire early that afternoon. The German battlecruiser does turn back, but at around 16.00, "Gloucester" has to break off the action because of low fuel and watch the enemy ships enter the Aegean, still on the 7th.

The three British battlecruisers have been coaling at Malta and are not ready to sail east until early on the 8th. Half way to Cape Matapan, they are diverted north towards the Adriatic by false news that war has been declared on Austria. Around this time and still on the 8th, "Goeben" and "Breslau" reach the southeast Aegean island of Denusa to refuel through until the 10th.  

Only at noon on the 9th do the heavy British ships continue the chase, but still with the expectation that the Germans will break back to the west.  

However early on the 10th, "Goeben" and "Breslau" with full bunkers, head for Turkish waters, and Milne, by now in the Aegean himself, shortly hears that Souchon has entered the Dardanelles later that same day.  

Six days later the two German ships are nominally transferred to the Turks as the battlecruiser "Yawuz Sultan Selim" and light cruiser "Midilli". Adding considerably to the strength of the poorly-equipped Turkish Navy, they spend much of the war operating in the Black Sea manned by their German crews and under the command of Adm Souchon, who is appointed Chief of the Turkish Fleet.  

Adm Troubridge is sent home and faces court martial six weeks later on the 5th November. Convicted of negligence, he is honourably acquitted, but never employed by the Admiralty again.

The French Navy is soon in action against the Austrians.

16th August - Austrian Cruiser "ZENTA" (1899, 2,300t, 8-12cm). As units of the French Navy continue to escort troop transports from North Africa across to the south of France, the main battlefleet transfers its base to Malta from where the Austrian Fleet can be more easily blockaded in the Adriatic. The French, under Adm Lapeyrère, and accompanied by Adm Troubridge's cruisers, shortly make a sweep into the Adriatic on the lookout for Austrian ships themselves blockading the Montenegran coast. On the 16th, off Antivari, the old protected cruiser "Zenta" is surprised and sunk in a one hour action with the French battleships. Escorting destroyer "Ulan" escapes.  

NEAR EAST

Turkey - Since late 1913, German Gen Liman von Sanders has been training and reorganizing the Turkish army, and early in August 1914, with the threat of war, Turkey has signed a secret agreement with Germany. However, it is some weeks before Turkey is brought into the war.

MEDITERRANEAN & NEAR EAST- SEPTEMBER 1914

Serbia - In the Second Invasion of Serbia (7th-15th September), the Austrians again cross the Sava and Drina Rivers, but only manage to hold on to a few small bridgeheads. 

Turkish Waters - Rear-Adm S H Carden, Superintendent of Malta Dockyard takes command of the squadron off the Dardanelles with the duty of sinking "Goeben" and "Breslau" should they break out into the Aegean. Instead, with Gen von Sanders, German Adm Souchon concentrates his energies on helping to bring Turkey into the war on the side of Germany. As the Turkish Naval commander he prepares to attack the Russian Fleet in the Black Sea.

MEDITERRANEAN & NEAR EAST - OCTOBER 1914

Turkey Enters the War - Under German influence, Turkey enters the war on the 29th on the side of the Central Powers. Not until early November do the Allies formally respond. Britain prepares to defend the Suez Canal and oil supplies in the Persian Gulf from Turkish attack.

Black Sea

29th - Turkish/German Attack on the Russian Fleet - Sailing on the 27th, the few seaworthy ships of the mixed Turkish/German fleet under the command of Adm Souchon, sail across the Black Sea to attack Russian bases without any declaration of war. Early on the 29th, Turkish destroyers attack Odessa sinking the Russian gunboat "DONETZ" (or "Donec", 1890, 1,200t, 2-15.2cm, later raised) and other shipping. "Goeben" shells Sevastopol in the Crimea, and according to Russian sources was damaged by the return fire of the shore batteries. Shortly she encounters the laden Russian minelayer "PRUT" (or "Pruth", 1879, 5,400t, c800 mines), which apparently scuttles herself under fire. Turkish cruiser "Hamidiye" shells Feodosia, also in the Crimea, while the "Breslau" and a Turkish cruiser bombard Novorossisk further east. Various minelaying operations, typical of both the Baltic and Black Sea theatres, accompany the attacks.

MEDITERRANEAN & NEAR EAST - NOVEMBER 1914

Serbia - On the 8th, the Austrians start the Third Invasion of Serbia. With a superiority in men and better equipped, the Austrians make a determined attempt to win in hard fighting in the wintry mountains through into December.

NEAR EAST

Turkey at War with the Allies - On the 2nd, Russia declares war on Turkey, followed by Britain on the 5th with the immediate annexation of Cyprus. With the declaration of war, the decaying Ottoman Empire is vulnerable to attack. The Turkish fronts are separated by great distances with poor communications, and range from the extreme cold of the Caucasus Mountains to the hot Sinai and Arabian deserts. Initially with about 40 divisions, totalling over half a million men, the Turkish land forces are eventually organized into four armies - the First in European Turkey, Second in Asia Minor, Third in the Caucasus opposing the Russians, Fourth along the Levant coast from Palestine to Sinai, and two corps in Mesopotamia, the area of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.

TURKISH NAVY - To build-up the small, old Turkish fleet, ships on order in August 1914 included two British built battleships now taken over by the Royal Navy as "Erin" and "Agincourt"; also various scout cruisers, destroyers and submarines which were never completed. The recently-arrived German "Goeben" and "Breslau", together with the remaining Turkish warships (two old ex-German battleships, two light cruisers, and a few destroyers and torpedo boats) come under the command of Rear-Adm Wilhelm Souchon, who is to lead them in action against the Russian Black Sea Fleet. Both German ships will be in battle several times but without any decisive results. Elsewhere, on the Dardanelles front, coastal guns, mines and U-boats will prove successful against the Anglo-French fleets, and small ship flotillas will be organised on the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers and on the Palestinian lakes for operations against British forces.

Turkish Waters

Allied Bombardment of the Dardanelles - With Turkey's entry into the war, but before Britain's own declaration, the Admiralty decides to match naval guns against the outer forts of the Dardanelles on the 3rd. Under Adm Carden's command, battlecruisers "Indefatigable" and "Indomitable" and French pre-dreadnoughts "Suffren" and "Verité" shell the forts of Sedd-el-Bahr and Kum Kale at the northern and southern tips, respectively of the entrance to the Straits. The limited success persuades the British that warships can defeat the shore batteries, but also provides the Turks with ample warning of the need to strengthen the defences further. 

NEAR EAST - continued

Arabia - British forces, preceded by a bombardment and landed from the sea, destroy Turkish fortifications overlooking the strait of Bab el Mandeb at the southern tip of the Red Sea. Warships taking part include armoured cruiser "Duke of Edinburgh".

Mesopotamia (Iraq) - British/Indian forces, controlled from New Delhi, land at the head of the Persian Gulf on the 7th and advance on Basra which is taken by the 22nd. Royal Navy and Indian Marine warships play an important part in the landings, the capture of Basra and subsequent river operations which start in mid-1915, and include old sloop/gunboats "Clio", "Espiegle" and "Odin", a variety of other vessels and later, gunboats of the new "Fly" and "Insect" classes. * Royal Navy BATTLE HONOUR is awarded to all warships taking part in Mesopotamia operations over the next three years - Mesopotamia 1914-1917.

Caucasus - The Russian-Turkish campaign in Armenia begins. Through November, December and into January the two armies struggle on the Caucasus front at altitudes of up to 8,000ft. The Turkish Third Army, commanded by Minister of War Enver Pasha, prepares to attack the Russians.

Black Sea

RUSSIAN FLEET - The Black Sea Fleet is under the command of Vice-Adm Eberhardt with

five pre-dreadnought battleships
(two dreadnoughts are completed in 1915)
two light cruisers
destroyers, torpedo boats and submarines,

It is soon on the offensive - attacking Turkish supply lines along the southern Black Sea to their forces fighting in the Caucasus, cutting the vital coal-trade between Zonguldak and Constantinople, and blockading the Bosphorus, both with surface forces and offensive minelaying. Submarines later join in. Seaplane carriers commissioned in 1916 also take part in raids on enemy bases.

18th November - Russian battleship "Evstafi". "Goeben" and "Breslau" encounter the Russians off Cape Sarych, Crimea. Although outnumbered, they are soon in action. "Goeben" is hit once, but in return badly damages the Russian flagship, the four-year old "Evstafi".

MEDITERRANEAN & NEAR EAST - DECEMBER 1914

Serbia - The Austrian's Third Invasion of Serbia continues, and on the 2nd, their forces manage to occupy the Serbian capital of Belgrade, situated as it is on the frontier. Next day the Serbian C-in-C, Gen Radomir Putnik launches a counter-offensive, and a week later the invaders are in full retreat and Belgrade is re-occupied on the 15th. Serbia is free for another nine months. Casualties are 100,000 on each side.

Mediterranean War at Sea

20th December - French submarine "CURIE" (1913, 400t, 1-45cm tt, 6 torpedo collars/cradles). The French Navy suffers its first casualties in the Adriatic. In the northern part, "Curie" attempts to penetrate the main Austrian naval base of Pola, and is caught in the protecting nets on the 20th. Forced to surface and sunk, she is later raised and commissioned into the Austrian Navy as "U-14".

21st December - French dreadnought "Jean Bart". Further south, on yet another sweep into the southern Adriatic by the French battlefleet, the recently completed dreadnought is torpedoed by Austrian submarine "U-12". Hit forward, she gets back safely to Malta. A number of sources still describe her as being sunk at this time.

Turkish Waters

13th December - Turkish armoured ship "MESUDIYE" (1876, 9,200t, 12-15.2cm secondary only). In the face of strong currents, minefields, coastal batteries, and patrols, the small, old British submarine "B-11" (Lt Holbrook), makes the first penetration of the Dardanelles reaching almost as far as Chanak, 15 miles in. The ancient "Mesudiye" moored as a stationery guard ship, is sighted and sunk with one 18in torpedo. Under fire, "B-11" returns and safely reaches the open sea. * The VICTORIA CROSS is awarded to Lt Norman Holbrook RN. 

NEAR EAST

Syrian Coast - Acting independently, British protected cruiser "Doris" (Capt Frank Larken) spends the second half of the month harassing Turkish forces along the Syrian coast near Alexandretta. Russian cruiser "Askold" enjoys similar success against shipping further south earlier in the month.

Egypt - Britain formally takes over Egypt from Turkey and proclaims a protectorate.

Caucasus - The Russians stop the Turkish advance at the Battle of Sarikamish, which continues through to early January 1915. 

Black Sea 

26th December - German battlecruiser "Goeben". Late on the 21st, Russian minelayers, with long range cover provided by the Russian Battle Squadron, lay a field just off the Bosphorus. Two days later, the Russians attempt a blockship operation against Zonguldak. As German light cruiser "Breslau" sails to meet the "Goeben" returning from escorting troop transports to Trebizond, she encounters the blockships, sinking two. "Goeben" returns on her own to Constantinople, and as she does, hits two of the earlier-laid, Russian mines only a mile off the Bosphorus entrance on the 26th. Badly damaged, she is largely out of action until May 1915, a severe blow to the Turkish Navy.

to top of page

on to Mediterranean 1915

URL: http://www.naval-history.net
Updated December 2000
copyright 2000-05